Research paper
Kirsch I. Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior. American Psychologist. 1985;40(11):1189-1202. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.40.11.1189.
Why we cite it
Foundational theoretical paper in American Psychologist introducing response expectancy theory. Kirsch proposed that response expectancies — expectations of the occurrence of nonvolitional responses (responses experienced as occurring automatically rather than through deliberate effort) — directly generate corresponding subjective experiences. This is hypothesised to be a basic psychological mechanism, not limited to placebo effects. The theory provides a unified framework integrating research on placebos, hypnosis, and fear reduction. Self-reported expectancy effects are substantiated by corresponding changes in behaviour and physiological function — the link from subjective experience to physiology is explained through the mind-body identity assumption common to nondualist philosophies. Extends beyond placebo to explain how negative expectations (nocebo) produce negative outcomes. Referenced in companion 410 (the-believer) as the theoretical basis for understanding why believing change is impossible becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy — if you expect a nonvolitional failure response, the expectation itself generates that experience.
About the author
Irving Kirsch, PhD, is Associate Director of the Program in Placebo Studies (PiPS) at Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Lecturer in Medicine at Harvard. PhD from the University of Southern California (1975). Professor Emeritus at the University of Connecticut and the University of Hull (UK). Over 288 peer-reviewed articles and 10 books; approximately 46,000 citations on Google Scholar. Introduced response expectancy theory in this 1985 paper — his foundational theoretical contribution. Best known publicly for his controversial meta-analyses of antidepressant efficacy: his 2008 PLoS Medicine analysis of FDA trial data found drug-placebo differences clinically negligible for moderate depression, reaching significance only for the most severely depressed patients — designated by the British Psychological Society as one of the ten most controversial psychology studies ever published. Author of The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth (2009). Featured on CBS 60 Minutes (2012). Ernest R. Hilgard Award for Scientific Excellence (International Society of Hypnosis, 2003). Living Human Treasure Award (Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2019). Honorary Doctorate, University of Basel (2015). Past President, APA Division 30 (Psychological Hypnosis).